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中国古代的特种地图与地图模型
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我国古代的测量与制图技术曾经远远领先其他国家,各类地图广泛应用于政治、军事活动和生产实践的诸多领域。从绘制地图的原材料方面来讲,早期的地图制作材料以绢帛为主(少数用布料);从隋代开始,由于大编图志风气的兴盛,开始尝试采用纸卷代替绢帛;宋元以后,雕版印刷业日渐发达,纸质印刷地图益为流行,许多地理志书中都插配上了相应的地图。不过,在我国古代,除了绢帛地图、纸卷地图外,还曾出现过其他各色材料绘制的地图。举其大者,即有原始地面刻划地图、九鼎地图、铜版地图、石刻地图、木刻地图、刺绣地图、“聚米图”、面糊木屑地图模型、熔蜡地图模型、沙石地图模型等等。这些用不同材料制作的特种地图,从不同侧面反映了中国古代地图发展的水平,值得系统总结和阐介。
从发生学角度来看,原始先民最初用以表述地理知识的方式很可能是图而不是文字。新中国成立初期,在我国西南地区进行民族学调查时,曾发现尚无文字的原始民族,保存有某些图腾的遗迹;近年来,在内蒙古阴山、宁夏贺兰山等地所发现的岩画中,也有大量的鸟兽、草木图形。这说明在人类社会出现文字以前,先民主要是依靠在地面或岩石上绘画符号,以缺少文字注记的简单图形来记载已知的地理事物。古史传说大禹治水时,曾从水神河伯那里得到过一方水淋淋的大青石,上面刻划有一些弯弯曲曲的水道线条,大禹借助它视察地形,导山导水,终于治服了洪水灾害。这个故事或许荒诞无经,但古代文献中关于“九鼎图”的记述却信而有证,可以增加我们对原始地图的了解。据《左传》记载:“昔夏之方有德也,远方图物,贡金九牧,铸鼎象物,百物而为之备;使民知神奸,故民入川泽山林,不逢不若,魑魅魍魉,莫能逢之。”《汉书·郊祀志》也说:“禹收九牧之鼎,象九州。”夏禹九鼎上的图像后世称为“九鼎图”,其上的内容十分丰富,“山之奇,水之奇,草之奇,木之奇,禽之奇,兽之奇,说其形,著其生,别其性,分其类”(明·杨慎《山海经补注》序言),“按其文,有国名,有山川,有神灵奇怪之所际,是鼎所图也”(清·毕玩《山海经新校正》序言)。可见,如把九鼎的图像综合在一起,就构成了一幅原始象形的全国总图。有关专家认为,我国古代文献中记载的“九鼎图”,要比公元前1300年埃及努力亚塔金字塔一带的巴比伦鲁地图约早800多年(金应春、丘富科编著《中国地图史话》,科学出版社1984年版),其在世界地图发展史上的地位可见一斑。夏禹所铸的铭刻着原始地图的九鼎,传至西周时仍被视为国宝而收存在陪都雒邑城中。但到战国末年,秦攻周(周赧王迁都后的西周),取九鼎,一鼎沉溺于泅水,其余八鼎入秦,后来也下落不明。战国时,成书的地理名著《山海经》曾配有“山海图”的内容系直接取材于“九鼎图”。晋代陶渊明《读山海经》诗中有“泛览周王传,流观山海图”之句,可见当时社会上还留存有“山海图”。可惜《山海经》中的地图后来失传,我们已无法深入了解“九鼎图”和“山海图”的本来面目。